By understanding the complex interactions between pollutants and ecosystems, we can develop more effective strategies to protect our environment and ensure a sustainable future for generations to come.
Through a collection of articles, interviews and graphics, this eBook explores the world of contaminants, from soil pollutants and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in water to the ubiquitous microplastics threatening Earth’s ecosystems.
Download this eBook to explore:
- PFAS testing and regulation
- Soil and water analysis
- Methods to combat environmental analysis
SPONSORED BY
Environmental
Analysis:
Uncovering Earth’s Pollutants
Inside the Evolving
Landscape of PFAS
Regulation
New Methods To Combat
Environmental Pollutants
Microplastics: How
Do They Spread?
Credit: iStock
2 TECHNOLOGYNETWORKS.COM
Contents
Digging Deep: Emerging Contaminants in Soil 5
Inside the Evolving Landscape of PFAS Regulation 8
Testing London’s Water for PFAS 12
Newly Discovered Fungus Capable of Degrading Plastic 14
New Methods To Combat Environmental Pollutants 17
Microplastics: How Do They Spread? 19
Water Analysis: A Pollution Solution? 22
3 TECHNOLOGYNETWORKS.COM
Environmental Analysis
Foreword
Welcome to “Environmental Analysis: Uncovering Earth’s Pollutants,” an insightful
exploration into the growing challenges and innovative solutions in the realm of
environmental pollution.
In this eBook, we delve into the multifaceted world of contaminants, from soil
pollutants and PFAS (Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances) in water to the ubiquitous
microplastics threatening both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
We also explore the discovery of a fungus capable of degrading polyethylene,
offering a glimpse of hope in our fight against plastic pollution, and examine the
evolving landscape of PFAS regulation and the innovative methods being developed
to detect and combat these persistent chemicals in our water supplies.
By understanding the complex interactions between pollutants and ecosystems,
we can develop more effective strategies to protect our environment and ensure a
sustainable future for generations to come. Join us as we uncover the hidden threats
to our planet and the pioneering efforts to combat them.
Copyright © 2024 PerkinElmer U.S. LLC. 119752 All rights reserved. PerkinElmer® is a registered trademark of PerkinElmer U.S.LLC. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
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5 TECHNOLOGYNETWORKS.COM
Credit: iStock.
You might be forgiven for thinking soil is just dirt
beneath our feet. Certainly, this writer vastly misjudged
its importance to life as we know it. It’s becoming
increasingly obvious that soil could be the unsung hero
of our planet, quietly working behind the scenes to keep
everything in balance. Sure, it’s crucial for growing our
food, but its role goes way beyond that. Think of soil as
one of Earth’s most important life support systems. In
addition to nurturing crops, soil does some heavy lifting
in fighting climate change. It’s like nature’s sponge,
soaking up carbon and helping to regulate our planet’s
temperature – it’s a natural filter, purifying the water and
air we depend on for our very existence.
And let’s not forget about the bustling community of
insects that call soil home. They’re the ultimate recyclers,
breaking down dead plants and organic matter, and
keeping the whole ecosystem ticking. Even in our cities,
soil plays a vital role – handling heavy rain, absorbing
pollutants and even playing a part in mitigating the
urban heat island effect. It’s the foundation for our urban
gardens, parks and playgrounds – the green spaces
that make life in cities that little bit more bearable and
greener. However, beneath the earth’s surface, there is
a whole hidden world of growing threats to soil from
emerging contaminants.
These contaminants, ranging from harmful collations of
heavy metals and pesticide derivatives to pharmaceutical
residues, biological pathogens and plastic waste, hold an
alarming power when left unchecked, posing significant
threats to environmental, animal and human wellbeing.
Human practices such as polluting industrial activities,
agriculture and urbanization all contribute to ongoing
environmental pollution. Their impact on soil not only
compromises health, fertility and biodiversity but also
has far-reaching implications for food safety and water
quality.
Biological pathogens, including bacteria, viruses
and parasites, introduced through improper waste
disposal and agricultural runoff, are another source of
worry. These can lead to the spread of many diseases
and require thorough screening to ensure they do not
compromise public health. Moreover, the relatively
recent and pervasive presence of plastic waste, composed
of non-biodegradable materials, further exacerbates
environmental degradation. Microplastics and
nanoplastics infiltrate soil and water systems, posing
threats to both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems by
entering the food chain ‒ endangering human health
from the presence of pathogens carried on their surface.
Addressing the multifaceted nature of contaminants
is crucial for mitigating their detrimental effects and
safeguarding the integrity of our environment and
wellbeing now and for our future generations.
“Understanding what soil is comprised of can be
extremely challenging,” said Dr. David Hackett, chair
of the British Standards Institution’s AW/20 Soils Other
Growing Media and Turf Committee. He elaborated
on the implications of emerging contaminants in soil
ecosystems, shedding light on their potential impacts
and challenges in detection. “It’s one thing to identify its
Digging Deep: Emerging
Contaminants in Soil
Nicholas Gaunt, PhD
Environmental Analysis
6 TECHNOLOGYNETWORKS.COM
Environmental Analysis
components, but it’s a whole new problem to comprehend
their environmental impact. Organic chemicals,
for instance, may break down into other harmful
substances, making it crucial to assess their effects on the
environment.”
So, what challenges do we face in addressing the longterm
impacts of contaminants on soil health? And how
can we develop effective solutions?
“With the rise of things like micro-, and now,
nanoplastics being a relatively recent phenomenon,
we’re still learning about their long-term impacts after
decades of use,” Hackett told Technology Networks. The
difficulty lies in understanding the significance of soil
contaminants but also in determining effective solutions,
especially when they’ve become ubiquitous. The ultimate
solution is stopping the production of contaminants. But
addressing historic problems like “forever chemicals” will
require a deeper understanding and robust approaches.”
Upon being questioned on the importance of examining
the chemical contaminants themselves, Dr. Hackett
continued, “We need to consider not just the chemical
itself but also how it finds its way back to potentially
impact human health. While we can observe its impact on
the environment to some extent, understanding its route
back to human consumption is crucial. The efficiency
and likelihood of contaminants reaching humans are
key considerations. This journey from soil to human
consumption is dynamic and constantly changing,
making it imperative to monitor and understand.”
Analytical conundrums
Understanding this comprehensive microbiome
ecosystem cycle is crucial in safeguarding, not only the
health of the animals and crops that we consume but also
the health of wild species; there is a collective expert
recognition that a diverse and resilient soil microbiome
is essential for ecosystem health. So how can soil be
monitored and studied? It’s a task that’s challenged
scientists for decades. The complex nature of soil
matrices, coupled with the diverse range of contaminants,
makes detection and quantification tremendously
complex. Traditional analytical methods often fall short
in accurately assessing contaminant levels, necessitating
the development of cutting-edge techniques.
“Current techniques for analyzing complex matrices like
soil must meet rigorous standards before being utilized,
especially in legal proceedings where transparency and
reliability are paramount,” said Professor Lorna Dawson,
head of the Centre for Forensic Soil Science at the James
Hutton Institute. “Methodologies must undergo thorough
testing, publication, and peer review to ensure their
validity, credibility, accuracy and reliability, with rare
exceptions only being made for intelligence purposes.”
“While cutting-edge analytical techniques, such
as volatile organic compound analysis using gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry, show promise
in identifying suites of organic compounds to identify
sources of decomposition, their reliability in court
settings remains unproven,” Dawson warned.
Future directions
Efforts to remediate soil contamination issues are
underway, with many countries across Europe making
progress on soil remediation measures to more
sustainable and regulated models for agricultural
practices. These practices aim to provide fairness for
farmers, while achieving high sustainability, meeting
societal expectations and contributing to climate
neutrality. Looking ahead, innovation in soil analysis
holds promise for enhancing our understanding of
soil ecosystems and mitigating contamination risks.
Innovative solutions such as customized soils and
collaborative research endeavors will be instrumental in
addressing the current and emerging challenges in both
soil management and overall environmental conservation.
“We’re witnessing a shift towards understanding the
nature of new contaminants and their impacts.” noted Dr.
Hackett when asked about the future of soils “The future
lies in developing tools to identify these contaminants
and determining their effects, whether harmful or not,
to devise appropriate treatment methods. Additionally,
soil analysis is expanding beyond agriculture to support
urban life, such as in the cultivation of street trees and
green roofs. From contaminated soil to the physical and
chemical properties, comprehensive analysis is essential.
Developing analytical tools and resources to assess soil
quality and guide its utilization is key to the future of soil
analysis.”
Professor Dawson spoke on the current analytical
limitations and what the future looks like from a
technological point of view. “It all hinges on the seamless
integration of these technologies, enabling precise
decision-making in the field,” she said. “I’d love to
imagine a future where physical, chemical and biological
sensors work in tandem, allowing for comprehensive
soil analysis at a glance. While this vision may seem
ambitious, with continued innovation and collaboration,
we can pave the way for a more sustainable and resilient
future based on the best available evidence.”
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Environmental Analysis
Soil analysis: Earth’s silent hero?
On reflection, it’s clear that soil analysis is very swiftly
emerging as a silent hero in safeguarding environmental
health and sustainability.
In 2024 and beyond, as we continue to navigate the
complexities of soil management and environmental
conservation, advocacy for continued collaboration and
research efforts is paramount. It should remain a top
priority to develop and implement rigorous standards and
innovative solutions to address soil contamination issues
effectively. Collaboration among scientists, policymakers
and stakeholders is essential to ensure our remaining soil
is protected. And, by investing in research, technology
and sustainable practices, we can ensure a resilient and
healthy soil ecosystem for the wellbeing of all life on
Earth.
About the interviewees:
Dr. David Hackett BSc (Hons) MLD PhD MCIEEM CEnv,
co-founder of Biora, is a distinguished expert in plantsoil
relations and landscape architecture, boasting over
three decades of experience in brownfield regeneration.
He currently chairs the British Standards Institution’s
AW/20 Soils, Other Growing Media and Turf Committee,
where he leads efforts to establish industry standards. Dr.
Hackett’s visionary approach and unwavering commitment
to sustainability have made him a prominent figure in the
field, driving transformative change in landscape design and
environmental conservation.
Prof. Lorna Dawson, CBE, is head of the Centre for Forensic
Soil Science at the James Hutton Institute in Aberdeen
and an Honorary Professor at RGU, Aberdeen. She is a
registered expert with the National Crime Agency and has
worked on over 100 forensic cases, presenting evidence in
court for over 20 of these. She holds diplomas in civil and
criminal law (Cardiff University, 2011, 2012, 2017 and
University of Aberdeen, 2021) She is a Commissioner with
the Food, Farming and Countryside (FFCC) and authored
the RSA Scotland FFCC report (2019) and is co-chair of
the devolved Scotland inquiry. She recently served on the
Scottish Government Arable Climate Change Advisory
Group (ACCG) and is on the scientific advisory panel for the
Scottish Government’s Agriculture Reform Implementation
Oversight Board (ARIOB). She is treasurer of the IUGS
Initiative on Forensic Geology (IFG) and Chair of the
Geological Society Forensic Geology Group (FGG) and
an affiliate member of the Organisation of Scientific Area
Committees (OSAC) for Forensic Science, USA. She was
awarded a CBE in the late Queen’s birthday honors list, June
2018, for services to soil and forensic science and was made
a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (FRSE) in 2019
and awarded Soil Forensic Expert Witness of the Year in the
Corporate INTL 2021 Global Awards.
8 TECHNOLOGYNETWORKS.COM
Environmental Analysis
Credit: iStock
Inside the Evolving Landscape of
PFAS Regulation
Alexander Beadle
Since their invention in the mid-20th century,
perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances, or PFAS,
were quickly adopted as key components of firefighting
foams, non-stick coatings for cookware and other water
and oil-resistant materials.1
However, in subsequent years, the scientific community
would discover that these compounds did not readily
degrade in the environment once released, raising
some troubling environmental concerns. In response, a
number of jurisdictions would go on to introduce policies
aimed at reducing the use of PFAS.2 Bodies such as the
European Union have also recently proposed and adopted
limits on the levels of PFAS that are allowable in drinking
water.3
Just like the regulatory landscape for these compounds,
the scientific understanding around PFAS is still
evolving. While studies have suggested that PFAS can
present health risks to humans,1 the effects of long-term
exposure are still not fully understood, especially in
more vulnerable populations. There is also demand for
improved PFAS testing method development and further
study of the compounds that are now being used in PFAS’
stead, to ensure that these do not present similar risks.
Together, these studies continue to inform the
evolving landscape of PFAS regulation as national and
international governing bodies look to safeguard the
environment and public health.
What are PFAS and what risks do they pose?
PFAS are a class of fluorine-containing polymers with
remarkably unique physical and chemical properties. Their
water and oil repellency, temperature resistance and ability
to reduce friction resulted in them being used extensively
by the textile and cookware industries, with firefighting
forces also taking advantage of their flame-retardant
properties to create more effective firefighting foams.
However, the same extreme chemical stability that was key
to their utility also results in these compounds being highly
mobile, persistent and bioaccumulative environmental
contaminants.4 In addition, these compounds can be difficult
for traditional remediation technologies to deal with.5 The
extreme longevity of these compounds in the environment
has even earned them the nickname the “forever chemicals”.
“PFAS are everywhere, and nearly everyone currently has
some measurable amount of PFAS in their blood,” said Dr.
Anne P. Starling, an assistant professor of epidemiology at the
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC) Gillings
School of Global Public Health. Starling also serves as a coprincipal
investigator at the Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry’s (ATSDR) Colorado site for a national study
of the health effects of PFAS in drinking water.
“Older consumer products containing PFAS can
deteriorate and be ingested as dust in households and
workplaces. People continue to be exposed to PFAS
through drinking water in many parts of the US, and even
9 TECHNOLOGYNETWORKS.COM
Environmental Analysis
those without PFAS in their drinking water are regularly
ingesting small amounts of PFAS through food and dust,”
she explained.
PFAS have essentially become ubiquitous, and have
even been found in samples from remote regions of the
Antarctic.6 Yet, despite our continued exposure to these
compounds, researchers are only now beginning to
unravel the health implications presented by PFAS.
“Much of what we know about the health risks of
PFAS exposure in humans is based on studies of highly
exposed workers, including firefighters exposed to
PFAS in aqueous film-forming foams and workers in
factories producing fluorochemicals including PFAS,”
Starling explained. “These studies have consistently
shown associations between PFAS exposure and higher
cholesterol in the blood as well as higher levels of enzymes
that may indicate damage to the liver. Some PFAS are
also suspected to increase the risk of kidney cancer and
testicular cancer.”
While restrictions on the manufacture of PFAS products
mean that this kind of high-volume exposure to the
compounds is a rare occurrence these days, researchers
are still keen to examine the health impacts of longterm
exposure to lower levels of PFAS contamination,
particularly among more vulnerable demographics.
“Some PFAS have been associated with a wide range
of serious health harms, from cancer to more severe
COVID-19 outcomes. Children are especially vulnerable
not only because their organs are still developing, but also
because they often have higher exposures,” said Rebecca
Fuoco, MPH, director of science communications at the
Green Science Policy Institute. In addition to maintaining
the PFAS Data Hub, the Green Science Policy Institute is
in active collaboration with scientists and politicians to
improve regulations and research efforts relating to PFAS.
“Per pound of body weight, children eat more food, drink
more water and breathe more air—all of which can be
contaminated with PFAS,” Fuoco continued. “Infants and
toddlers may have even higher exposure due to crawling
and hand-to-mouth behaviors. Exposure to certain PFAS
during childhood or in utero has been linked to reduced
antibody response to certain vaccines and infections,
obesity, higher cholesterol and more.”
PFAS regulation around the world
In light of the potential dangers presented by PFAS, many
national governments and international institutions have
moved to introduce regulatory policies and guidelines
aimed at stemming the tide of PFAS production and
protecting the public from exposure.2
Arguably the most prominent of these policies is the
Stockholm Convention, a global treaty signed by 152
countries committing to protect human health and
the environment from what it dubs “persistent organic
pollutants”, or POPs.7 Signatories to the Convention are
required to either completely prohibit or significantly
reduce the manufacture, import and export of POPs.
Currently, the Convention recognizes three PFAS —
perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), perfluorooctane sulfonate
(PFOS) and perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS) — as
POPs,8 with long-chain PFAS as a collective group also
under consideration for future inclusion.
“PFOA and PFOS in particular are considered “legacy
pollutants”, because their use has been restricted and
production has ceased in many industrialized countries,”
Starling explained. “However, PFOA and PFOS, along
with other long-chain “legacy” PFAS and newer, shortchain
PFAS used as replacements, are still widely detected
in blood samples from adults and children in the general
public. This is likely due to the extreme persistence of
these chemicals in the body and in the environment.”
Outside of the Stockholm Convention, there are a number
of different restrictions currently regulating the use and
production of PFAS9 in the EU.
The European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) restricts the
manufacture and use of several individual PFAS under the
registration, evaluation, authorisation and restriction of
chemicals (REACH) regulation. In addition, authorities
in Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway and
Sweden recently submitted a joint proposal to the ECHA
that seeks to ban all PFAS compounds as a group, which
will be consulted on throughout 2023.10
Relevant EU regulation on PFAS also includes the
Drinking Water Directive, which includes limits for total
PFAS set at 0.5 μg/L, and the sum of 20 PFAS deemed
to be of most concern at 0.1 μg/L. It also requires the
European Commission to establish new technical
guidelines on standard methods of analysis for PFAS
monitoring in water.11
In the United States (US), the Environmental Protection
Agency recently published a new PFAS strategic
roadmap and national testing strategy that will require
manufacturers working with PFAS to report toxicity
testing data to the Agency.12
“PFAS have contaminated freshwater fish in rivers and
lakes throughout the US,” Starling explained. “Many
drinking water sources have been contaminated with
PFAS, and the US currently has no enforceable maximum
contaminant limit for the amount of PFAS present in
treated drinking water.”
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Environmental Analysis
Despite the current lack of enforceable federal guidance
on the issue, several US states have now begun to adopt
the non-enforceable EPA Lifetime Drinking Water Health
Advisory Level of 70 ppt for PFOS and PFOA, or have
adopted their own limits of similar values.13
The future for PFAS testing
It is clear that this evolving regulatory environment is
likely to have a significant impact on testing. For example,
in the absence of federal regulations, nine US states have
adopted drinking water standards or guidance values
set at levels lower than the EPA advisory levels.2 Such
stringent guidelines bring about a new need for analytical
testing methods with much lower limits of quantification.
As exemplified by the Drinking Water Directive
and subsequent commitments from the European
Commission, developing methods that are capable of
detecting and quantifying a wide range of different PFAS
compounds at once is also a priority.
Also advocating for improved non-targeted methods are
those who believe that PFAS would be better managed as
a broad class of compounds. With less than one percent
of known PFAS having been tested for toxicity,14 there is
concern that testing procedures that only deal with one
compound at a time may delay efforts to protect health
and the environment.
“Only a small fraction of the thousands of PFAS have been
tested for toxicity, but we know that all PFAS are either
extremely persistent in the environment or break down
into extremely persistent PFAS,” Fuoco said. “Additionally,
some newer PFAS first claimed to be safe were later
determined to be harmful to our health. To stem further
irreversible damage, we need to eliminate all non-essential
uses of this problematic class as soon as possible.”
In line with regulatory efforts that aim to limit PFAS
production and stem the flow of PFAS contaminants
into the environment, there is also a desire for increased
environmental monitoring and surveillance using
techniques that are able to detect these compounds in
environmental samples quickly. This has been accompanied
by a wave of promising development efforts towards creating
low-cost PFAS-detecting sensors that can be deployed in
situ and provide rapid readouts for assessment.15
As PFAS testing efforts and health studies continue to
highlight the dangers of PFAS contamination, legislators
are using this data to introduce new policies that dictate
when and how contamination is screened for and handled.
In turn, this evolving regulatory landscape is helping
to drive the development of new detection and analysis
methods that can be deployed where concerns are raised,
furthering the array of tools and technologies available to
help make our environment safe for all.
High-content screening is an imaging method that
combines the automated recording of multicolor
fluorescence imaging and high-throughput quantitative
data analysis. The approach helps extract spatial and
temporal information about target activities within cells.
It yields information that allows better lead optimization
before in vivo testing.
The way forward
The pharmaceutical industry’s commitment to
advancing drug discovery has led to several innovations
and has transformed the HTS sector. Remarkable
advances in analytical technology and laboratory
automation tools have increased the efficiency of HTS
workflows with minimal manual intervention and
less material required. However, the increased data
generated warrants more efficient and quicker data
management and modeling tools such as machine
learning and first-principles modeling.
About the interviewees:
Dr. Anne P. Starling is an assistant professor of epidemiology
at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Gillings
School of Global Public Health. Starling also serves as a
co-principal investigator at the Agency for Toxic Substances
and Disease Registry’s Colorado site for a national study of
the health effects of PFAS in drinking water.
Rebecca Fuoco is the director of science communications at
the Green Science Policy Institute. She previously worked as
a communications strategist for nonprofit organizations and
academic research centers in the health and environmental
fields and holds a master’s of public health degree from UC
Berkeley, where she was a Center for Health Leadership Fellow.
References
1. What are PFAS? Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/pfas/
health-effects/overview.html. Published June 24,
2020. Accessed March 2023.
2. Brennan NM, Evans AT, Fritz MK, Peak SA, von
Holst HE. Trends in the regulation of per- and
polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS): A scoping review.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 2021;18(20):10900.
doi:10.3390/ijerph182010900
3. Perfluoroalkyl chemicals (PFAS). European Chemicals
Agency. https://echa.europa.eu/hot-topics/
perfluoroalkyl-chemicals-pfas. Accessed March
2023.
4. Interstate Technology Regulatory Council. History
and use of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances
(PFAS). https://pfas-1.itrcweb.org/fact_sheets_page/
PFAS_Fact_Sheet_History_and_Use_April2020.pdf.
Published April 2020. Accessed March 2023.
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Environmental Analysis
5. Interstate Technology Regulatory Council. Treatment
Technologies. https://pfas-1.itrcweb.org/12-
treatment-technologies/. Updated August 2021.
Accessed March 2023.
6. Microplastics and persistent fluorinated chemicals
in the Antarctic. Greenpeace. https://www.
greenpeace.org/static/planet4-internationalstateless/
2018/06/4f99ea57-microplastic-antarcticreport-
final.pdf. Published 2018. Accessed March
2023.
7. Overview. UN Environment Programme Stockholm
Convention. http://www.pops.int/TheConvention/
Overview/tabid/3351/Default.aspx. Published 2013.
Accessed March 2023.
8. Information on the 16 chemicals added to the
Stockholm Convention. UN Environment Programme
Stockholm Convention. http://www.pops.int/
TheConvention/ThePOPs/TheNewPOPs/tabid/2511/
Default.aspx. Accessed March 2023.
9. Portal on Per and Poly Fluorinated Chemicals.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD). https://www.oecd.org/
chemicalsafety/portal-perfluorinated-chemicals/
countryinformation/european-union.htm. Accessed
March 2023.
10. ECHA publishes PFAS restriction proposal. European
Chemicals Agency. https://echa.europa.eu/-/echapublishes-
pfas-restriction-proposal. Published
February 2023. Accessed March 2023.
11. Directive (EU)2020/2184 of the European Parliament
and of the Council of 16 December 2020 on the quality
of water intended for human consumption (recast).
L 435/1. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/
EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32020L2184&from=EN.
Accessed March 2023.
12. Key EPA Actions to Address PFAS. US Environmental
Protection Agency. Published March 13, 2018. https://
www.epa.gov/pfas/key-epa-actions-address-pfas.
Accessed March 2023. #
13. Lifetime Drinking Water Health Advisories
for Four Perfluoroalkyl Substances.
Environmental Protection Agency. FRL 9855-
01-OW. https://www.federalregister.gov/
documents/2022/06/21/2022-13158/lifetimedrinking-
water-health-advisories-for-fourperfluoroalkyl-
substances. Accessed March 2023.
14. Findings and Recommendations of the North Carolina
Per- And Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Testing Network:
Final Report to the North Carolina General Assembly.
NC PFAST Testing Network. https://ncpfastnetwork.
com/wp-content/uploads/sites/18487/2021/04/NCPFAST-
Network-Final-Report_revised_30Apr2021.
pdf. Published April 2021. Accessed March 2023.
15. Kwiatkowski CF, Andrews DQ, Birnbaum LS, et al.
Scientific basis for managing PFAS as a chemical
class. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2020;7(8):532-543.
doi:10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00255
16. Rodriguez KL, Hwang JH, Esfahani AR, Sadmani
AHMA, Lee WH. Recent developments of PFASdetecting
sensors and future direction: A review.
Micromachines. 2020;11(7):667. doi:10.3390/
mi11070667
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Credit: iStock
Testing London’s Water for PFAS
Leo Bear-McGuinness
British water is in need of some good publicity.
The country’s water companies have been mired
in controversy in recent years following reports of
mismanagement, widespread leaking pipes, sewagesaturated
seas and record fines. In a recent survey, only
34% of respondents trusted their local water company to
prevent sewage from entering rivers and seas.
So, the last thing these companies would want right now
is a trending story about another dangerous contaminant
in the country’s water systems. But such a headline may
just be around the corner…
London trawling: looking for forever
chemicals in the Thames
Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a growing
concern around the world. The group of surfactants
were first mass produced in the mid-20th century to
waterproof consumer products like pans, paints and
packaging. They’re now known as “forever chemicals”
because they have an almost-unbreakable highlyfluorinated
alkyl chain backbone that makes them
extremely chemically stable and difficult to degrade
naturally.
This robustness has helped the chemicals reach as far the
Arctic and the base camp of Mount Everest. So it’s no
surprise they’re in British rivers, too.
What may be more shocking is the level of PFAS that
might persist in the nation’s drinking water, particularly
as a recent wave of research has linked the compounds to
health concerns like cancer and low birth weights.
A recent report from the Royal Society of Chemistry
found that more than a third of tested water courses in
England and Wales contained medium- or high-risk levels
of PFAS. The river Thames in London was one of the most
polluted sites the team sampled; the capital’s waterway
contained a combined PFAS concentration level of
4,931.1 nanograms per liter (ng/l) – nearly 50 times the
Royal Society’s proposed limit (100 ng/l) of all forever
chemicals in drinking water.
So, the pertinent question is: how many of these PFAS
compounds are making their way through the river’s
filtration network and into London’s drinking water?
To work that out, researchers would need to gather tap
water samples from across the city, which is exactly what
one team is about to do.
“We want to quantify how much PFAS is coming out
of the taps in people’s homes,” said Dr. Alexandra
Richardson, a researcher at Imperial College London’s
School of Public Health. Richardson is heading up the
university’s Investigating the Toxicological Assessment
of PFAS (ITAPS) project, which is partly funded by the
Royal Society of Chemistry.
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Environmental Analysis
“There are guidelines for what PFAS levels are suitable
once it leaves the drinking water treatment plant, but
there’s a lot of piping between the treatment plants and
our kitchen taps,” said Richardson. “In the US, that there
are quite a few studies looking at what’s coming out the
taps in the various states in the USA, but nothing really in
the UK. So that’s what this project is about.”
To gather the required data, Richardson and her colleagues
have already recruited 40 participants, and hope to enlist
more from across the city after the Easter break.
“From an experimental and scientific standpoint, a
scatter [of data] across London is what we’re trying to
achieve – good representation from almost every from
every London borough,” said Richardson. “Because we
genuinely do not know if the PFAS concentrations vary
across the city at all, or one region, or if a region with old
infrastructure is better or worse affected than a newer
build area. We genuinely don’t know.”
More PFAS, more research
If the team do end up detecting high levels of PFAS in
one particular area, they’ve vowed to notify all relevant
participants.
“We want to give back to the community in some ways,”
Richardson continues.
“We are planning on giving them the concentrations of
PFAS in line with the current drinking water spectra
guidelines, which I’ve hoped would be below the lowest
tier. If a house does trigger a concern, then we will
investigate that further. But it’s a balance, as we don’t
want to fear monger.”
This balance between safety and excessive scrutiny is
something that, according to Richardson, hasn’t always
been struck when it comes to recent PFAS regulation,
particularly in the US.
“I think the US has gone a bit overboard in some ways
with it,” she said. “PFAS and PFOA [perfluorooctanoic
acid] are nasty compounds. There are definitely
indications there might be cancer risk caused by them.
But asking labs to routinely test down to four PPT [parts
per trillion], it’s a very big ask, analytically.”
In 2022, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
issued its interim PFOA and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid
[PFOS] limit of 4 ng/l for single samples. In comparison, the
European Union’s collective limit for 20 PFAS chemicals is
100 ng/l. While there are no firm limits for PFAS in England
and Wales, there are “wholesomeness” guidelines to keep 47
individual PFAS compounds to 100 ng/l.
While the Royal Society of Chemistry isn’t as ardent as
the EPA, it has proposed more stringent PFAS limits for
the UK (100 ng/l for all collective compounds) to bring
the country’s regulations in line with the continent. In
its report last year, the society also called on the UK
government to enforce stricter limits on PFAS industrial
discharge and ensure that many hundreds of sources of
PFAS are captured and documented in a national lab for
record-keeping.
In principle, Richardson agrees that more PFAS research
can only be a good thing for public health policies.
“I hope that research along this route will continue,” she
said. “It doesn’t necessarily have to be the same model as
the ITAP study. It’s like the early days of understanding
the health effects of air pollution. We know these things
are in the environment. We know they can cause effects.
But we don’t know the human dose at the moment.
Because we don’t know how much we ingest in food or
tap water. Therefore, it’s very hard to put a toxicology
value on it and to determine effect. So, I definitely hope
that PFAS research into human health exposures and
human health effects will definitely continue because I do
think it’s something that is important.”
Richardson hopes the ITAP study will have produced its
first round of results by the end of this year.
Dr. Alexander Richardson was speaking to Leo Bear-
McGuinness, Science Writer for Technology Networks.
About the interviewee:
Dr. Alexander Richardson is a research associate within the
Epidemiology and Biostatistics (EBS) and Emerging Chemical
Contaminants (ECC) groups at Imperial College London.
14 TECHNOLOGYNETWORKS.COM
Environmental Analysis
Credit: iStock.
Newly Discovered Fungus
Capable of Degrading Plastic
Kate Robinson
Humans produce over 380 million tons of plastic every
year, and this number is expected to have tripled by 2060.
Much of this waste appears in our oceans, and the most
abundant type, polyethylene, can be found floating in
surface waters and even resting on the seafloor.
In a paper published in Science of The Total Environment,
researchers from the Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea
Research (NIOZ) reported on the discovery of a fungus
capable of breaking down polyethylene particles.
The researchers collected plastic litter from the hotspots
of plastic pollution in the North Pacific Ocean, leading to
the discovery of the degrader, Parengyodontium album.
Technology Networks spoke to Dr. Annika Vaksmaa, the
lead author of the paper, to learn more about how plastic
impacts marine life, the discovery of plastic-degrading
microbes, and the importance of plastic degraders
Q: How does plastic litter in the ocean impact
marine life?
A: Plastic litter in the ocean has severe and far-reaching
effects on marine life. Among many impacts of this
pollution, one of the best known is the impact on marine
animals that mistake plastic debris for food. When ingested,
this plastic can cause malnutrition, blockages and even
death. Additionally, other impacts may be due to the toxic
additives plastics often contain or compounds absorbed
from the water.
Additionally, fish, birds and turtles can become entangled
in plastic items such as fishing nets and plastic bags, leading
to injuries, impaired movement and sometimes drowning or
suffocation. Plastic also contributes to habitat destruction.
For example, coral reefs can be smothered by plastic debris,
blocking sunlight and hindering their growth, while plastic
accumulating on the seabed disrupts the habitats of bottomdwelling
organisms. And counteractively, while it destroys
natural habitats, it forms others. This is especially apparent
in areas such as the Pacific garbage patch, where organisms
that should not be far out from the coast have found new
surfaces to attach to and live on.
When plastics are transported in aquatic ecosystems,
they can also carry along many species and facilitate the
transport of invasive species and pathogens that disrupt
local ecosystems.
In addition, as larger plastic items break down, they form
microplastics, which are ingested by a wide range of smaller
marine organisms. While some studies into the effects of
micro and nanoplastics do exist, far more research is needed.
Q: What inspired your attempt to uncover
plastic-degrading microbes?
A: I have always been fascinated by environmental problems
such as climate change, which was the subject of my PhD.
During this time, I investigated microbes that can oxidize
methane. Now, I am focusing more on plastic pollution in
the ocean.
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Environmental Analysis
I am particularly intrigued by the use of microbes
to mitigate environmental issues. The resilience and
adaptability of microbes offer a unique and powerful tool
for addressing environmental challenges. Discovering and
harnessing plastic-degrading microbes can improve the
understanding of what happens in nature: which microbes
live on plastic, and which can then potentially break it down.
In the future, microbes may offer a solution to reducing
plastic waste
Q: How does P. album degrade plastic?
A: We have now seen that P. album is able to break plastic
down, but uncovering how that process happens and which
fungal enzymes are involved is another step in this process.
It definitely will be worthwhile to identify the molecular
mechanisms as this will provide another method of seeking
out plastic degraders. If we know the enzymes responsible,
we can see which other microbes and their genomes contain
these, and from there, we could test if they do break down
the plastics as well.
Q: What methods did you use to study the
degradation process?
A: In this study, we used isotopically labeled polyethylene.
This is one of the most abundant polymers produced and
discarded, so large amounts of it are present in our oceans.
Studying the degradation process, which is known to be
extremely slow, using these “tagged” plastics enables us to
monitor the production of degradation products such as
CO2 with very sensitive detection methods.
This allows us to measure plastic degradation in less
than a week. In nature, plastics take decades to break
down and many require even longer. We used nanoscale
mass spectrometry for high-resolution imaging and
precise chemical analysis. Such methods are crucial for
understanding the intricate processes involved in plastic
degradation at a very detailed level. However, our results
showed that the 13C tag from plastic is mainly found in CO2
and to a lesser extent in biomass, indicating that P. album
does not use it for growth.
We also used scanning electron microscopy (SEM) which
allowed us to see detailed surface structures and the
morphology of biomass at the microscale. This is crucial for
understanding how microorganisms and biofilms attach to
and interact with surfaces, including plastics.
Q: How important is it to discover other plastic
degraders?
A: Finding other plastic degraders is very important. We
now know quite a bit about bacteria and fungi degrading
plastics in the terrestrial environment, however it may
be that there are other types of microbes and organisms
breaking down these hard to break polymers.
Furthermore, as large amounts of plastic end up in our
oceans, focusing there and identifying new microbes and
pathways can give a holistic understanding and illustrate
what happens to the plastics in the marine environment.
This can help answer questions on how the break down is
facilitated, how the total ecosystem is impacted and the
process of biodegradation.
Q: Do you envision P. album could be used to
reduce plastic waste industrially?
A: Microbes are well-known for being used to mitigate
pollution and environmental disasters, such as when oil
pollution occurs on land. However, further research is
required to determine if P. album is the best candidate for
plastic degradation on an industrial scale. It is just the first
step to identify the organisms, how they function and which
plastics can they degrade. To tackle the massive problem of
plastic pollution on an industrial scale is something that one
hopefully can address in the future. However, the sooner the
better, as plastic is still piling up in oceans and the problem
is only growing.
Dr. Annika Vaksmaa was speaking to Kate Robinson,
Assistant Editor for Technology Networks.
About the interviewee:
Dr. Annika Vaksmaa is a postdoctoral researcher at the
Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ). She
obtained a PhD in microbiology from Radboud University
Nijmegen in 2017.
Microplastics can be either primary (produced in
“micro” form e.g., beads in personal care products like
facial scrubs) or secondary (larger plastics that are
broken down over time).
The three main routes through which humans,
animals and the environment might be exposed to
microplastics are:
Key sources of
microplastic pollution
Water
While wastewater treatment plants can remove larger microplastics,
smaller particles can evade removal.
Microplastics are particularly problematic in our water systems as they
are further eroded through physical abrasion, ultraviolet (UV) irradiation
and biodegradation into smaller particles, making them more difficult to
remove and more easily ingested.
Microplastics can enter water systems through:
Degraded plastic waste Surface run-off Atmospheric deposition
Wastewater and industrial effluent Combined sewer overflows
While wastewater treatment plants can
remove larger microplastics, smaller
particles can evade removalremove
larger microplastics, smaller particles
can evade removal
Untreated raw sewage can
enter into superficial water
bodies before treatment
due to heavy rain.
Click here to download the full infographic
17 TECHNOLOGYNETWORKS.COM
Credit: iStock
Environmental Analysis
New Methods To Combat
Environmental Pollutants
Kate Robinson
New headlines appear every day highlighting the
detection of pollutants ranging from forever chemicals to
microplastics in environments across the globe, but how are
scientists fighting back against these unwelcome guests?
Here, we explore recent advances in methods to detect and
remove the contaminants invading our planet.
Nanoconfined Materials Developed for Efficient
Fluoride Removal From Water
In a study published in Chemical Engineering Journal,
researchers reported on the development of an innovative
material for the efficient removal of fluoride ions from
water.
Fluoride is a major water pollutant, with high doses
causing dental or skeletal fluorosis, which is linked to
osteosclerosis, calcification of tendons and ligaments, and
bone deformities.
Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) are effective at
removing fluoride, however, they are prone to material
aggregation during preparation, which leads to a significant
decrease in adsorption capacity. Because of this, it’s
important to design LDH materials that fully expose their
active sites to efficiently remove fluoride ions.
The new material, called La-Mg LDH/Ti3C2TX, was
developed by combining La-Mg LDH with Ti3C2TX to
help prevent the sheets from clumping together. After being
used and regenerated five times, the material was still able
to remove over 80% of the fluoride ions from water. In
addition, the levels of magnesium, titanium, and lanthanum
in the filtered water remain below national safety standards,
demonstrating that the material is stable and safe.
“Our study could lead to more effective methods for
water purification,” said Dr. Junyong He, a member of the
research team, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese
Academy of Sciences.
Atom-Thin Graphene Membranes Make Carbon
Capture More Efficient
Scientists from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
Lausanne (EPFL) have developed advanced atomthin
graphene membranes that show unprecedented
performance in CO2 capture.
The need for efficient and cost-effective carbon capture
technologies is more urgent than ever, as the war against
climate change rages on. Carbon capture, utilization and
storage (CCUS) is a critical technology used to reduce CO2
emissions from industrial sources, however, current capture
methods are costly and unsustainable.
In the study, published in Nature Energy, the researchers
reported on the development of single-layer graphene
films that show exceptional CO2 capture performance
by incorporating pyridinic nitrogen at the edges of
graphene pores. The membranes were synthesized using
chemical vapor deposition on copper foil and the pores
were introduced into the graphene through controlled
18 TECHNOLOGYNETWORKS.COM
Environmental Analysis
oxidation with ozone. The researchers then developed a
method to incorporate nitrogen atoms at the pore edge by
reacting the oxidized graphene with ammonia.
These membranes can significantly reduce the costs and
energy requirements of carbon capture processes. The
team is now looking to produce these membranes by a
continuous roll-to-roll process.
Caffeine Levels May Help Pinpoint Polluting
Wastewater Leaks
In research published in Environmental Chemistry
Letters, researchers have suggested that caffeine levels
could be used to find likely sources of leaks in wastewater
systems.
The team collected storm drain water, rainwater, puddle
water and domestic sewage samples, in order to measure
how frequently compounds consistently detected in
domestic wastewater in Japan are found in rainwater
and puddle water. They found that polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons were detected 80% of the time, fragrance
compounds were found 60% to 82% of the time and a
common sunscreen ingredient was found 90% to 100% of
the time.
Caffeine was detected less than half the time in rainwater
and puddle water, and the level of contamination was
distinctly different for rainwater and puddle water, storm
drainages and domestic sewage.
As there is little recirculation of caffeine into the drainage
system via rainfall and the source of any caffeine in runoff
could be attributed to domestic sewage, it could be a good
tracer for future research.
Looking ahead, the team wants to understand more
about the pollution caused by these leaks. “We want to
clarify the extent of the possible pollution of the receiving
public water bodies, such as rivers, lakes or coastal
areas, by the leaks,” said Noriatsu Ozaki, an associate
professor at Hiroshima University’s Graduate School
of Advanced Science and Engineering. “And finally, we
want to develop the diagnostic technology to indicate the
leakage at the site using the trace organic chemicals as an
indicator.”
New Spectroscopy Method Simplifies
Measurement of Microplastics in Soil
Researchers from Waseda University and the National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology
(AIST) have developed a novel method to measure the
concentration of microplastics in different soil types.
Microplastics are present throughout our environment,
having been found in environments across the globe. A
significant portion of these pollutants are held in soils,
from which they can easily transfer to groundwater and
eventually enter the human body.
Current techniques for measuring microplastic
concentrations in soil require separation of the soil
organic matter content, a process during which
microplastics are often lost. Following this, techniques
that require advanced skills and have limited resolution
are typically used.
The research, published in Ecotoxicology and
Environmental Safety, demonstrates the efficacy of a
newly developed spectroscopy-based method to correctly
measure the concentration of microplastics in soil,
without any cumbersome separation process.
The new method uses the difference between the
absorbance spectra of microplastics and soil particles to
quantify the pollutants.
“Our novel measurement approach can quantify different
[microplastics], including polyethylene and polyethylene
terephthalate, in a variety of soils and can easily be
used as an initial assessment tool. Moreover, it can
help further our understanding of the distribution and
migration behavior of [microplastics] in the geosphere
environment,” said Kyouhei Tsuchida, a researcher at
AIST and a doctoral student at Waseda University.
know is important but is very difficult to get intellectual
property on and to sell and to reimburse, what you’ll
be left with is very transactional,” says Heifets. “Go to
a clinic, take your trip, then leave and do the [therapy]
app. The field is at a crossroads will it embrace placebo,
using different trial designs and formal definitions of
set and setting or remove these factors altogether.”
Regardless of the route that the field decides to take, it
will have to acknowledge the power of placebo. “I wish
I could be more hopeful about decriminalization and
commercialization of psychedelics,” he concludes. “I
don’t think they’re going to reimburse the right things.”
19 TECHNOLOGYNETWORKS.COM
Microplastics: How Do They
Spread?
Alexander Beadle
From remote and pristine regions of the Pyrenees1 to the
deep-sea floor,2 small fragments of plastic can be found the
world over. With such a broad geographic spread, these
microplastics — the umbrella term given to tiny plastic
particles or fibers typically measuring less than 5 mm —
have become ubiquitous in the modern world.
Broadly, microplastics can be divided into two
categories: primary and secondary microplastics.3
Primary microplastics are plastic particulates designed
for commercial use, such as the microbeads sometimes
included in personal care products or the synthetic
fibers shed from clothes during washing. In contrast,
secondary microplastics are formed when larger plastic
products, such as discarded bottles or plastic bags, begin to
decompose and break down in the environment.
Once these particles enter the environment, there is a risk
that the microplastics could be unknowingly ingested by
fish, local animals or humans who might eat contaminated
foods. While the health effects of microplastics are still
not fully understood, current research indicates that
microplastic exposure can cause tissue damage, oxidative
stress and changes in immune-related gene expression
for marine life.4 In humans, accidental consumption is
also thought to be linked to problems with cytotoxicity,
neurotoxicity, immune system disruption and lead to the
accumulation of microplastics in different body tissues.4
But how does this exposure happen? Research suggests
that our soil, waterways and even the air around us can all
be a source of microplastic contamination. Fortunately,
researchers have a number of tools at their disposal
that can help to identify and quantify cases of serious
contamination,5 with several commercial-scale cleanup
technologies also helping to stop the continued spread of
such microplastics
Routes of microplastic contamination
There are three main avenues through which humans,
animals and the wider environmental ecosystem might be
exposed to microplastics. These are:
Soil
There are multiple routes that microplastics might take
to enter the soil.6 The breakdown of discarded plastic
items that have been sent to landfill is a major contributor
to this. Other sources of contamination might include
tire wear and tear, soil amendments or the spreading of
contaminated sewage sludges or wastewater on farmland.
Once they are in the soil, microplastics can have a
significant impact on their local environment. Plants may
struggle with proper nutrient metabolism and absorption
if microplastics are present at high enough levels, as the
microplastics can disrupt soil microorganisms and thus
affect the normal microbiome.7 There is also the risk that
microplastics could enter the broader food chain once
they have been introduced to fertile land, increasing the
risk of accidental consumption by animals and humans.
Environmental Analysis
Credit: iStock
20 TECHNOLOGYNETWORKS.COM
Environmental Analysis
Current research indicates that microplastics may also act
as a vector for other harmful pollutants, carrying residual
chemicals into new environments where they could
present additional risks to life.8
Water
Microplastics may be present in seawater, freshwater,
wastewater or groundwater, although the exact source of
the plastic does vary significantly. Microplastic fibers may
be relatively common in seawater, for example, as fishing
nets begin to degrade and release material into the oceans.
The microplastics found in wastewater are more likely to be
primary microplastics from personal care products being
used and washed down the drain.9
Rainwater is another interesting case, as this water can
act as a powerful vector that transports microplastics out
into soil or other aquatic environments, often picking up
other contaminants along the way. One study conducted
in the Nakdong River, South Korea, found that between
70–80% of the annual microplastic load is moved during the
country’s rainy season.10
In a marine environment, microplastics will gradually
fragment into greater numbers of smaller microplastic
particles through physical abrasion, ultraviolet (UV)
irradiation and biodegradation. At such small particle
sizes, these microplastics may pose even more substantial
risks to aquatic life by penetrating cell membranes and
causing cellular damage.9 This presents a significant danger
to the rest of the food chain too, as predators run the risk
of consuming prey containing large amounts of plastic
accumulated in their tissues, thus furthering the spread of
these microplastics.
Air
Due to their incredibly small size and low density, it is also
possible for microplastics to be picked up in the wind and
blown from place to place.11 This means that humans and
animals are actively breathing in atmospheric microplastics
as they go through daily life. Indeed, current research
simulations suggest that humans may breathe in nearly 300
microplastic particles during a day of light activity.12
Microplastic particles have already been found in human
lung tissue samples, however, there is still a general lack of
information regarding the effects of these particles on the
respiratory system and the mechanisms through which they
might contribute to lung disease.13
How is microplastic contamination detected?
Visual inspection using a microscope or stereoscope
can be sufficient to detect the presence of microplastics
in simple sample matrices. Despite being a relatively
time-consuming technique, even when assisted by the
use of special dyes, a recent review estimates that
visual inspection is still used in just under one-third of
microplastic analyses of water and sediment samples.14
According to the same review, the most frequently used
methods of analysis for water and sediment samples
are Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)-
based methods. This spectroscopy technique uses
the vibrational modes of different molecules in order
to identify certain characteristic structures within a
sample that will indicate its chemical makeup. Raman
spectroscopy, another vibrational spectroscopy method,
is also commonly used for microplastic analysis.
Pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
(pyro-GC-MS) is another frequently used method of
analysis wherein microplastic samples are pyrolyzed
in an inert atmosphere and the resulting gases are
analyzed.14 By its nature, this method is destructive
and does not allow an analyst to glean any information
regarding the number of microplastic particles in a
given sample. However, for the bulk analysis of a large
sample, this technique can provide very accurate
characterizations of the different plastics present within
very complex matrices.
Microplastic remediation
An effective microplastic remediation technique must
take care not to create more microplastics inadvertently,
either through incomplete degradation or additional
fragmentation.
For this reason, coagulation is one of the most
frequently used techniques for removing microplastics
at commercial wastewater treatment facilities.15 The
technique works by using different chemical coagulants
to destabilize the microplastic particles suspended in the
wastewater, promoting sedimentation and easy removal
when passed through a filter. However, the technique is
not a perfect solution to microplastic pollution. At the
industrial level, the coagulation process will produce
significant amounts of sludge that may pose its own risk
to the environment if not adequately treated.
There are other, more experimental techniques for
microplastic remediation that are currently being
trialed.15 One of these is photocatalytic degradation.
This method makes use of a semiconductor material
that absorbs visible or UV light and, in the process,
generates free radicals, which degrade the microplastics.
However, while this technique does effectively destroy
microplastic particles, it still generates some sludge
waste that must be monitored and disposed of carefully
to prevent damage to the environment.
Environmental Analysis
21 TECHNOLOGYNETWORKS.COM
Another novel technique that is attracting significant
attention is electrocoagulation. A sustainable and costeffective
alternative, electrocoagulation operates on the
same principle as traditional coagulation but without the
use of chemical coagulating agents. In electrocoagulation,
metallic electrodes are used to produce cations that can
promote flocculation between the microplastic particles.
This produces significantly less sludge waste than the
traditional approach, which is a boon for both the
environment and the wastewater treatment plant, that no
longer has to deal with the expensive post-processing and
monitoring steps needed for proper sludge disposal.
As a material, plastic has revolutionized our modern
world. Its impressive durability and strength-toweight
ratio has enabled significant advancement in
a wide variety of disciplines, including building and
construction, electronics, textiles, consumer products
and transportation. But now more than ever, scientists
are aware of the dangers presented when these products
are disposed of improperly and are allowed to break down
to form harmful microplastics. For today’s researchers,
it is crucial that we improve our understanding of how
these plastic particles are being spread, so that actions
can be taken to remediate cases of contamination and
stem the flow of these plastics into our environment.
Participants in the study were severely allergic to peanuts
and at least two other foods. After four months of monthly
or bimonthly omalizumab injections, two-thirds of
participants were able to eat small amounts of their allergytriggering
foods safely.
Upon re-testing, 66.9% of patients who had taken
omalizumab could tolerate at least 600 mg of peanut
protein, the amount in two or three peanuts, compared
with only 6.8% who had the placebo. Similar proportions of
patients showed improvement in their reactions to the other
foods in the study.
“Patients impacted by food allergies face a daily threat of
life-threatening reactions due to accidental exposures,”
said Robert Wood, lead author of the study and professor of
pediatrics at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.
“The study showed that omalizumab can be a layer of
protection against small, accidental exposures.”
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and sediment: A critical review. TrAC Trends Anal Chem.
2019;110:150-159. doi:10.1016/j.trac.2018.10.029
15. Osman AI, Hosny M, Eltaweil AS, et al. Microplastic sources,
formation, toxicity and remediation: a review. Environ Chem
Lett. 2023. doi:10.1007/s10311-023-01593-3
22 TECHNOLOGYNETWORKS.COM
Water Analysis: A Pollution
Solution?
Matt Hallam
Water is an essential ingredient for life on Earth – and
possibly beyond. For modern humans, water represents a
means to hydrate, wash, cook, clean and even to dispose of
our waste. But our activities are not without consequences.
Every headline about pollutants like microplastics and
forever chemicals (namely per- and polyfluoroalkyl
substances) is a daunting reminder that our presence on
this planet has a direct impact on the quality of its water.
Understanding this impact could help us to improve
water quality and avoid the potential adverse effects of
contaminants. But how big is the problem? What tools are
used to quantify it? And how can this knowledge help us?
The tools of the trade
“There are over 200 parameters that we can analyze when
assessing water quality and most of these are source- and
location-specific,” said Dr. Sarper Sarp, a senior lecturer at
Loughborough University.
Among these parameters are a wide variety of contaminants.
Though many researchers have focused on traditional
pollutants (like nutrients and heavy metals), so-called
emerging pollutants are now taking center stage.
“There isn’t enough information about emerging
pollutants and their impact,” explained Prof. Rachel
Gomes, a professor of water and resource processing at the
University of Nottingham. “These include pharmaceuticals,
microplastics, and microorganisms that have developed
resistance to commonly used antimicrobials.” The impact of
these pollutants is widely documented: microplastics were
identified in human breastmilk in 20221 and antimicrobial
resistance caused an estimated 1.27 million deaths globally
in 2019.2
The choice of technique used for water analysis is largely
driven by the application and target. A combination
of gas (GC) or liquid chromatography (LC) with mass
spectrometry (MS) can prove effective for targeted and
untargeted contaminant identification, but each approach
has its own strengths (and preferred targets). MS variants,
like matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-offlight
MS, can also be applied to study microorganisms in
water sources.3
Some contaminants might be identified via Raman
spectroscopy, which studies the vibrational modes of
molecules and requires minimal sample preparation.
Biosensors, which convert biological signals into a
measurable response, also represent a viable option
with high sensitivity and selectivity and the potential for
miniaturization.4
Of course, other techniques – like genomic methods – are
available for specific applications. And, as may be expected,
our analytical capabilities have changed (and will continue
to change) over time. As Sarp said: “We used to be able
to detect contaminants at the parts per million level in
water; now we can study them at parts per trillion. The
driving force is knowledge – and the fact that some of these
chemicals can be toxic at extremely low concentrations.”
Environmental Analysis
Credit: iStock
Environmental Analysis
23 TECHNOLOGYNETWORKS.COM
Life in plastic
Of all the analytes that scientists study in water, plastics
have probably received the greatest level of media attention
in recent years. Worldwide familiarity with microplastics is
testament to this coverage, but how problematic are they?
“Microplastics were a big focus in research a few years
ago,” Sarp explained. “But microplastics often leave the
body without a negative impact because of their chemical
inertness and large size. I wondered if we could study
nanoplastics instead, which are small enough to penetrate
cell walls and cause toxicity. We did so by combining
nanofiltration with pyrolysis GC-time-of-flight MS
(considered the best technique to identify specific plastics).
Our approach made the analysis of nanoplastics in water
possible for the first time.”5
But simply detecting these plastics is not enough. “The
wider context around plastics is also important to consider,”
Gomes said. “What type of polymer are we looking
at? Are they weathered or pristine (unweathered, or as
manufactured)? What is their size and distribution? Not all
microplastics are created equal. How do their individual
qualities influence their fate and impact? And are the
samples analyzed truly representative of the wider water
environment being studied? These factors must be explored
to gain a full understanding of the problem.”
Combatting COVID
Wastewater represents a powerful analytical target because
an estimated 2.1 billion people are connected to wastewater
treatment processes around the world.6 Many scientists have
used – and are still using – this water as an opportunity to
study COVID-19.
Rolf Halden and colleagues began using the quantitative
polymerase chain reaction and metagenomic approaches to
study SARS-CoV-2 particles in wastewater on a regular basis
in Tempe, Arizona, during the early days of the pandemic.
The hope was to identify local infection hotspots, and the
online dashboard still boasts results from these analyses.7
A study led by clinician Dr. Tanya Monaghan at the
University of Nottingham accomplished a similar feat in
Nagpur, India. The team, which included Gomes, applied
RNA sequencing to retrospectively measure SARS-CoV-2
and other zoonotic viruses from a total of 140 sample sites
and identified SARS-CoV-2 in 59% of the locations studied
(though the levels of virus varied massively between sites).8
They also detected several infectious agents in wastewater
for the first time – including Jingmen tick, chikungunya, and
rabies viruses – but Hepatitis C was the most common virus
detected. Studies like this provide an opportunity to assess
the health status of large populations and can help to direct
interventions against the diseases present.
Sarp’s contributions to the fight against COVID-19 via
wastewater analysis again focused on nanoplastics. “When
the pandemic started, we shifted our focus to facemasks
and whether they emit nanoplastics once disposed of,” he
said. “To our surprise, we found that each mask released
thousands of nanoparticles, some of which were laced with
heavy metals like arsenic, lead and copper. The potential
impact of these findings could be huge.”
What’s next?
Water analysis is essential to protect people and our planet,
but we have a long way to go to truly understand and
ensure the quality of our water. Part of the problem is the
limitations of our current knowledge and technologies.
“We need to answer a number of key questions,” Gomes
explained. “Which emerging pollutants should be treated
as a priority? Can current treatment technologies remove
them? How can we improve these technologies where
needed, and what new technologies or strategies might
be necessary?” Essential technological advances will
include the development of cheap and mobile analytical
equipment, as well as remote sensing capabilities and end
user-based monitoring.
Another important issue to address will be inequity in water
analysis between geographies. “Analytical approaches
and their availability need to be more inclusive,” Gomes
said. “Access to LC-MS/MS instrumentation is limited
in some countries and existing machines tend to become
outdated very quickly. This is driven partly by the need
for ever-decreasing detection limits. Determinations of
environmental risk using predicted no effect concentrations
(PNECs; the level at which a contaminant is thought to
have no negative impact) could also be modified to be more
geographically equitable. Current PNECS tend to focus
on European aquatic species, but are also applied to other
regions where they may not be relevant. Ways to reduce
contamination levels in water without the need for expensive
technologies and processes are needed, too.”
Ambitious targets like the 9% reduction in microplastics
by 2040 proposed by the European Commission9 paint a
picture of a bright (and clean) future. Perhaps suggestions
like those above can help us to achieve it.
About the interviewees
Dr. Sarper Sarp is a senior lecturer in the School
of Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering at
Loughborough University. His research focuses on water
quality, micropollutant monitoring in water, and water
treatment systems.
Prof. Rachel Gomes is a professor of water and resource
processing in the Faculty of Engineering at the University of
Nottingham. Her research focuses on wastewater and reuse,
24 TECHNOLOGYNETWORKS.COM
Environmental Analysis
with an emphasis on pollutants, water quality, and waste
valorization opportunities.
Dr. Tanya Monaghan is a clinical associate professor and
honorary consultant in gastroenterology in the Faculty
of Medicine and Health Sciences at the University of
Nottingham. Her current research interests include developing
wastewater-based epidemiological approaches to understand
population health in East Africa and India.
References
1. Ragusa A, Notarstefano V, Svelato A, et al. Raman
microscopy detection and characterisation of
microplastics in human breastmilk. Polymers. 2022. doi:
10.3390/polym14132700
2. Antimicrobial resistance. World Health Organization.
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/
antimicrobial-resistance. Published November 21, 2023.
Accessed March 19, 2024.
3. Jiang W, Lin L, Xu X, et al. A critical review of analytical
methods for comprehensive characterization of produced
water. Water. 2021. doi: 10.3390/w13020183
4. Zakir Hossain SM, Mansour N. Biosensors for on-line
water quality monitoring – a review. Arab J Basic Appl Sci.
2019. doi: 10.1080/25765299.2019.1691434
5. Sullivan GL, Delgado Gallardo J, Jones EW, Holliman
PJ, Watson TM, Sarp S. Detection of sub-micron
(nano) plastics in water samples using pyrolysis-gas
chromatography time of flight mass spectrometry
(PY-GCToF). Chemosphere. 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.
chemosphere.2020.126179
6. Hart OE, Halden RU. Computational analysis of SARSCoV-
2/COVID-19 surveillance by wastewater-based
epidemiology locally and globally: Feasibility, economy,
opportunities and challenges. Sci Total Environ. 2020. doi:
10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138875
7. Biomarker: COVID-19. Tempe Wastewater BioIntel
Program. https://wastewater.tempe.gov/pages/
biomarker-covid19. Accessed March 19, 2024.
8. Stockdale SR, Blanchard AM, Nayak A, et al. RNA-Seq of
untreated wastewater to assess COVID-19 and emerging
and endemic viruses for public health surveillance.
Lancet Reg Health Southeast Asia. 2023. doi: 10.1016/j.
lansea.2023.100205
9. Urban wastewater. European Commission. https://
environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/water/urbanwastewater_
en. Accessed March 19, 2024.
There have been relatively few studies investigating the sources of emerging PFAS.
The few studies that have been done suggest that their presence in the
environment is primarily the result of direct emissions from fluorochemical
manufacturing.
Short-chain PFAS compounds generally have a shorter half-life in the environment
than long-chain legacy PFAS. Still, HFPO-DA has been detected
alongside other legacy PFAS in Arctic seawaters, suggesting that emerging
PFAS also have the potential to travel long distances and become global
contaminants if left unaddressed.
Direct emissions from
local fluorochemical
production
Degradation of
other fluorinated
substances
Long-range transport
A 2015 study of surface water
in the US found traces of HFPO-
DA, a PFOA substitute, and
other new PFAS in geographic
egions with historic legacy
PFAS contamination.
A 2017 study of river and drinking
water in the Netherlands
found HFPO-DA and other
emerging PFAS downstream
from a fluorochemical production
plant, suggesting the plant
was the source of the compound.
Click here to download the full infographic
26 TECHNOLOGYNETWORKS.COM
Environmental Analysis
Contributors
Alexander Beadle
Alex is a science writer and editor for Technology Networks. Alexander holds an
MChem in Materials Chemistry from the University of St Andrews, Scotland.
Kate Robinson
Kate Robinson is an assistant editor at Technology Networks. She joined the team in
2021 after obtaining a bachelor’s degree in biomedical sciences.
Leo Bear-McGuinness
Leo is a science writer with a focus on environmental and food research. He holds
a bachelor’s degree in biology from Newcastle University and a master’s degree in
science communication from the University of Edinburgh
Matt Hallam
Matt is a freelance science writer with years of experience producing content. He has
a master’s degree in translational oncology from the University of Sheffield.
Nick Gaunt, PhD
Nick is a multi-award winning science writer and the founder, director and CEO of
Acorn Scientific Marketing. He completed a PhD at the University of Exeter focusing
on enhancing agrochemistry to bolster food security.
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